A few disclaimers. When I use the word “chocolate” in this article, it is referring to dark chocolate (with 70-100 cacao solids) only. In English, there is no established difference between the words cocoa and cacao, they can be used interchangeably. Any attempt at definition is purely a marketing ploy. Numerous studies on the health effects of cacao products or chocolate originate from industry sources, yet systematic reviews show that positive effects persist even when these are excluded from meta-analyses (1). Regardless, in my assessments, I take extra care to ensure that referenced studies are free from external funding or even manufacturer-provided products.
The History Of Cacao
Cacao (Theobroma cacao) belongs to the Malvaceae family, which is a diverse plant family that includes economically important plants like cotton, okra, and hibiscus. More specifically, cacao is part of the subfamily Byttnerioideae. The genus name "Theobroma" literally means "food of the gods" in Greek, reflecting its historical importance. Cocao is native to the deep tropical regions of the Americas, specifically the Amazon Basin. It's an understory tree, growing in the shade of larger trees in the rainforest.
Cacao seeds are packed with bioactive compounds that serve both protective and functional roles. Polyphenols and methylxanthines, such as theobromine and caffeine, act as chemical defenses against herbivores and pathogens while offering antioxidant benefits and mild stimulant effects to humans. Their high concentration in cacao seeds helps deter seed predators. The lipid content, primarily cocoa butter, provides an energy reserve for seedling development. Its unique fatty acid composition, rich in stearic and oleic acids, allows it to remain solid at room temperature but melt at body temperature—an advantage for both seed survival and chocolate’s signature texture.
Cacao's mineral richness, particularly in magnesium, iron, and copper, reflects its adaptation to nutrient-dense tropical soils, where it evolved efficient nutrient uptake mechanisms. Meanwhile, its intricate flavor profile, shaped by over 600 volatile compounds, evolved to attract specific seed dispersers while discouraging predators, ensuring the plant’s continued reproduction.
Monkeys, particularly capuchins and spider monkeys in Central and South America, have historically consumed the sweet pulp surrounding cacao seeds while discarding the bitter seeds themselves. This exemplifies a mutualistic relationship: primates obtain nutritional benefits from the sugar-rich pulp while serving as seed dispersal agents for the cacao tree. The pulp provides quick energy through simple carbohydrates, while the primates' digestive systems are not adapted to process the alkaloid-rich seeds that contain methylxanthines toxic to many mammals.
While our evolutionary cousins could only access the pulp, early humans in Mesoamerica discovered methods to process the seeds, neutralizing some of the defensive compounds and accessing their nutritional benefits. Through fermentation, roasting, and other processing techniques, early humans transformed a bitter, defensive seed into a nutritionally valuable food source.
For years, experts believed cacao was first domesticated in Central America. However, new genetic research suggests its origins trace back to South America, specifically present-day Ecuador. The Mayo-Chinchipe people of Ecuador were the first known cacao users around 3300 B.C., though whether for food, drink, or medicine remains uncertain. By 1800 B.C., the Olmecs of Mesoamerica brewed cacao into a warm, spiced beverage, a tradition later embraced by the Maya and Aztecs, who even used the beans as currency (4). Cacao was a sovereign unit of account and more often functioned as cash in private transactions.
A study analyzing the genomes of 200 cacao plants found that Criollo, a prized variety long associated with Mesoamerican cultures, was selectively bred from an ancient Amazonian relative called Curaray. Archaeological evidence further supports this, with traces of cacao found on artifacts from Mayo-Chinchipe sites in Ecuador dating back 5,300 years—1,700 years earlier than the oldest known Mesoamerican cacao use.
Researchers suggest cacao spread northward via trade and farming, eventually reaching Central America and becoming deeply embedded in Maya and Aztec culture.
Evidence for cocoa’s potential health benefits first emerged from studies of the Kuna Indians, an Indigenous population living on the San Blas Islands off Panama’s coast. This group has been observed to have low rates of atherosclerotic disease, hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia, which some researchers have linked to their high consumption of cocoa-rich beverages. While many reports suggest that cocoa products may have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular, neuroprotective, metabolic, and mood-related effects, other factors, likely contribute to these health outcomes.
The History Of Chocolate
Archaeological evidence traces chocolate (‘fermented pulp”) consumption to Maya culture by 600 BC. More than mere food, chocolate was deeply embedded in social and religious life—used in ceremonies, festivals, weddings, and as funerary offerings. Cocoa beans served dual purposes as both a ritualistic substance and a form of currency by 400 BC.
Chocolate was just one of several cacao-based drinks, alongside tzune (with maize and sapote seeds) and saca gruel. Spanish conquistadors introduced cacao to Europe in 1519, initially as a medicinal product. The basic preparation method—fermenting, roasting, and milling with metates—remained unchanged until the 19th century when technological innovations turned chocolate from a liquid luxury into a solid, mass-produced confection.
British and Swiss manufacturers pioneered industrial chocolate production. They developed techniques to create smooth, solid chocolate bars. Innovations like conching—a method of heating and grinding chocolate to develop flavor and texture—were crucial in creating the chocolate we recognize today.
By the early 20th century, chocolate had become a global commodity. Manufacturers began adding stabilizers like lecithin and experimenting with variations like couverture and white chocolate. The industry expanded rapidly, with the global chocolate trade reaching over US$100 billion by 2018, though increasing awareness of ethical production challenges remains critical.
Cacao prices have surged in recent years, reaching an all-time high in 2024. The primary cause is a global cacao shortage caused by droughts and floods in West Africa, which produces about 80% of the world's cacao.
Cacao Phytochemicals
The Cacao Polyphenols
Cacao and its derivative chocolate represent one of the richest dietary sources of polyphenols, particularly flavonoids. An example of one of these is quercetin which is present in high amounts. Beyond flavonoids, cacao contains significant amounts of phenolic acids including caffeic acid, and p-coumaric acid. Cacao is a top source of ferulic acid.
The polyphenolic profile of cacao is dominated by flavonoids called flavan-3-ols, especially (-)-epicatechin and (+)-catechin, which can constitute up to 35% of the total polyphenol content. Procyanidins, polymers of these flavan-3-ols, are also abundant in cacao, with B-type procyanidins (B1, B2, B3, B4, B5) being predominant.
In 2022, an expert panel published the first-ever dietary recommendation for a bioactive compound in Advances in Nutrition. This novel guideline marks a shift from nutrient deficiency prevention to proactive health optimization, underscoring the potential of plant bioactives in public health. The EFSA had previously validated the health benefits of cocoa flavanols—by approving a specific health claim for products containing at least 200 mg of cocoa flavanols per serving, equating to 1 heaping tablespoon of high-quality cacao powder or 80-100g dark chocolate, linked to improved blood flow and vascular health. This relatively rare endorsement underscores the high-quality evidence from human studies demonstrating their physiological effects, setting a benchmark for functional food claims.
The 2022 flavan-3-ol panel leveraged prior assessments, such as the European Food Safety Authority’s (EFSA) approval of a health claim for cocoa flavanols and vascular function, to reinforce their decision. No other polyphenol subclass has achieved similar regulatory recognition for cardiometabolic endpoints.
Derived from an extensive review of 157 randomized controlled trials and 15 cohort studies, the experts made a recommendation to support cardiometabolic health with intake of flavan-3-ols. Namely 400-600 mg daily via foods because high-dose flavan-3-ol supplements (e.g., green tea extracts) have been linked to liver injury and gastrointestinal distress. Flavan-3-ols, a subclass of flavonoids abundant in cacao, tea, apples, berries, and red wine, demonstrate consistent benefits across multiple biomarkers, with moderate-quality evidence supporting their role in reducing cardiometabolic risk.
Cacao has a specific ratio of monomeric to oligomeric flavanols that appears crucial for vascular health benefits. The readily absorbed monomers (like epicatechin) quickly enhance nitric oxide production and improve endothelial function, delivering immediate improvements in blood flow. Meanwhile, the oligomers serve as a "slow-release reservoir," undergoing gradual breakdown by gut bacteria and providing anti-inflammatory effects within the digestive system itself. This complementary action, where monomers offer immediate benefits while oligomers provide sustained support, creates a uniquely effective profile for cardiovascular health.
Cocoa’s phytochemical content varies by genotype (Criollo, Forastero, Trinitario), cultivation, maturity, fermentation, and processing. Forastero, especially wild (raw) or minimally processed strains, has the highest polyphenol levels, while Criollo, bred for flavor, and against bitterness, contains less. To maximize polyphenol intake, minimally processed Forastero or unroasted cacao beans are best. Among origins, Colombian cacao ranks highest in polyphenols, with Peruvian cacao as a strong alternative (Bogumila, 2019; Bordiga, 2015).
Cacao contains N-phenylpropenoyl-L-amino acids (NPAs), compounds relatively rare in other foods but high in cacao bean shells. These hybrid molecules, combining phenolic acids named hydroxycinnamic acids with amino acids, contribute anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and mood-regulating properties that complement the flavanols' effects.
✅ To increase N-phenylpropenoyl-L-amino acids (NPAs), consume whole intact cacao beans or cacao bean shells.
✅ To maximize polyphenol intake, minimally processed Forastero or unroasted cacao beans are best. Among origins, Colombian cacao ranks highest in polyphenols, with Peruvian cacao as a strong alternative.
✅ To extrapolate, the “RDA” for flavan-3ols, could be obtained from 2 tbsp unprocessed cacao powder or 100-120 grams of dark chocolate or 500mg grape seed extract (0–70% oligomeric procyanidin) or 8ish cups of tea. The EFSA cacao recommendation hints at 1 tbsp cacao powder, or 80-100g chocolate.
The Cacao Stimulants: Gentle Energy Boosters
Present in lower amounts than in coffee, caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant (Methylxanthine) that enhances alertness, reduces fatigue, and can elevate mood by increasing dopamine and norepinephrine activity. Chocolate's primary stimulant is theobromine, comprising 2-10% of cocoa's dry weight. This methylxanthine blocks adenosine receptors similar to caffeine but with a gentler, longer-lasting effect. While caffeine is present in smaller amounts (0.1-0.7%), the combination provides that subtle lift in alertness and mood without the jittery aftermath of coffee.
Contains tyramine, a bioactive amine from tyrosine. Stimulates norepinephrine release, potentially boosting alertness or mild excitement. At high doses, it can spike blood pressure, but cocoa’s levels are safe for most. Its stimulant-like action on the nervous system adds a subtle mood kick, especially in processed products. Phenylethylamine, another compound in dark chocolate, is linked to mood modulation, and cognitive functions, and is associated with the perceived aphrodisiac properties of chocolate.
Contains a bioactive amine from histidine, histamine. As a neurotransmitter, it promotes wakefulness and attention via H1/H3 receptors. High doses might irritate (e.g., headaches), but cocoa’s levels are low and more likely to sharpen focus. Contains octopamine, a biogenic amine that functions as a neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, and neurohormone, primarily in invertebrates. It plays a significant role in modulating neuronal functions and behaviors. Wake-promoting effects in model organisms.
The Cocoa Mood Enhancers: Nature's Antidepressants
The "love molecule" phenylethylamine (PEA) occurs naturally in chocolate and has been linked to feelings of attraction and euphoria. A 50g bar gives ~0.03–1.75 mg PEA and is typically higher as compared to cacao powder. Normally, PEA is quickly metabolized by MAO-B enzymes, but chocolate conveniently contains natural MAO inhibitors like Harman compounds that may extend its effects. PEA serves as a precursor to dopamine, a neurotransmitter related to motivation, pleasure, and reinforcement of behaviors.
Chocolate itself is a rich source of serotonin and dopamine. The former is directly tied to happiness and calmness. Yet, dietary serotonin and dopamine don’t cross the blood-brain barrier. Still, it might act locally in the gut, influencing the gut-brain axis. Even trace amounts could nudge mood indirectly through gut signaling. Chocolate's most significant impact on mood, however, comes from its rich supply of precursor compounds like tryptophan that the body can use to synthesize serotonin in the brain itself. The carbohydrates in chocolate enhance this process by facilitating tryptophan transport across the blood-brain barrier. Research with animal models has demonstrated that consuming dark chocolate increases the endogenous production of both dopamine and serotonin.
Tryptamine is a compound derived from tryptophan, an amino acid. It’s found in various psychoactive substances, including hallucinogens, and acts as a neuromodulator or neurotransmitter. It weakly activates serotonin receptors (like 5-HT2A), potentially enhancing serotonin’s mood effects, though its impact is mild. It’s a precursor to potent psychedelics like DMT but isn’t very strong itself. Its role in serotonin pathways suggests it could subtly influence mood.
Chocolate is surprisingly rich in magnesium (250-500mg/100g), which modulates GABA receptors to promote relaxation. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) itself is naturally present in dark chocolate. GABA plays roles in the nervous system, including the modulation of synaptic transmission, and may help in preventing sleeplessness and depression.
The Cocoa Chocolate Bliss Inducers
Perhaps most fascinating is cacao's content of anandamide (NN-arachidonoylethanolamine, AEA), aptly named after the Sanskrit word for "bliss." This endogenous lipid is an endocannabinoid that binds to the same receptors as THC, creating subtle feelings of pleasure.
While raw cacao has higher levels of anandamide, chocolate raises the bar by having compounds not present in raw beans, like several N-Acylethanolamines that inhibit fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the enzyme that breaks down anandamide. The two most abundant N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) found in chocolate (N-oleyl-ethanolamine and N-linoleylethanolamine) do not activate brain cannabinoid receptors perse but effectively inhibit anandamide degradation, extending their mood-enhancing effects and tie into chocolate’s pleasure factor. (11)
The Brain Protectors: Cognitive Support
The flavanols and polyphenols like epicatechin abundant in cacao powder or to a lesser extent, catechin abundant in chocolate, improve cerebral blood flow and enhance brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), supporting neuroplasticity and stress resilience. These compounds also reduce neuroinflammation, providing indirect mood benefits through improved cognitive function.
Cacao's positive effects on health in the literature
Literature review
When writing about cacao, it’s hard to avoid the COSMOS trial, the largest RCT on cacao supplementation with a 3.6-year follow-up. Though industry-sponsored (Mars, Pfizer), NHS co-sponsorship lends it some credibility. The study suggests cacao polyphenol supplements may reduce CVD deaths in older adults, but broader benefits remain uncertain. I dislike this study for its conflicts of interest and reliance on a standardized cocoa extract, which lacks fiber and cocoa butter and may not behave like cacao powder, cacao nuts, or chocolate.
A recent systematic review (13) and meta-analysis of RCTs published in Nutrients though, concluded that cocoa or dark chocolate consumption demonstrates protective effects on major cardiometabolic risk markers, which could translate to meaningful cardiovascular risk reduction in clinical settings. This provides scientific support for including cocoa products as part of a heart-healthy dietary approach.
Cocoa consumption showed targeted cardiovascular benefits by reducing total and LDL cholesterol, lowering blood glucose levels, and decreasing both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. However, it doesn't seem to affect body weight, BMI, waist circumference, triglycerides, or HDL cholesterol levels. This suggests cocoa's heart-protective effects work through specific metabolic pathways rather than through comprehensive changes to body composition or the complete lipid profile.
Cocoa flavanols exert regulatory effects on lipid synthesis and glucose homeostasis, mitigating obesity-induced metabolic dysregulation. Mechanistic studies indicate this activity is mediated through the upregulation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), a nuclear receptor critical for adipocyte differentiation, lipid storage, and insulin sensitivity. By enhancing PPAR-γ expression, cocoa flavanols promote transcriptional regulation of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake, thereby attenuating metabolic dysfunction associated with hyperlipidemia and insulin resistance.
Only a small fraction of cocoa polyphenols, about 5 to 10%, is absorbed in the small intestine, while the majority passes to the colon. There, gut microbiota play a crucial role by metabolizing these compounds into bioactive forms, including phenyl-γ-valerolactones and phenylvaleric acids. These microbial transformations not only make the polyphenols absorbable but also generate metabolites with anti-inflammatory properties.
Cocoa polyphenols actively shape the gut microbiota by promoting beneficial bacteria such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, while inhibiting potentially harmful ones like Clostridium. This modulation supports microbial diversity and contributes to a balanced gut environment. Moreover, the metabolites produced enhance gut barrier integrity and stimulate the production of short-chain fatty acids, particularly butyrate, which further supports intestinal health. In total, around 90% of cocoa polyphenols rely on microbial metabolism to become bioavailable, mainly through their conversion into smaller, more easily absorbed molecules like PVL and PVA, primarily derived from (-)-epicatechin.
Cocoa polyphenols are not the sole contributors to gut microbiota changes; other phytochemicals, notably theobromine, also play a significant role. Research in rodents shows that a cocoa-rich diet high in theobromine and fiber exerts stronger modulatory effects on gut microbiota than polyphenols alone.
Flavanols neutralize free radicals, enhance NO-mediated vasodilation, reduce inflammation, and support neurogenesis (via BDNF/pCREB), benefiting cardiovascular and cognitive health. Daily cocoa powder doses of 4.45–26.95 g (depending on health goal) could achieve benefits, equivalent to ~0.5–3 tablespoons (14)(15)(16).
Cocoa flavanols and polyphenols offer neuroprotective benefits and boost cognitive function by crossing the blood-brain barrier to reduce inflammation, enhance synaptic activity, and support neuronal mitochondrial function—a key factor in brain aging. These compounds work through antioxidant-independent mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory effects, gut-brain axis modulation, and epigenetic regulation. They activate pathways like MAPK, ERK, and PI3, increasing the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).
Polyphenols suppress neuroinflammation by inhibiting microglial activation and reducing cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6) via NF-κB modulation. Additionally, they enhance synaptic plasticity, promote neurogenesis, inhibit amyloid-β aggregation (linked to Alzheimer’s), and improve mitochondrial biogenesis, while regulating DNA methylation and histone acetylation to influence genes tied to cognitive decline.
Flavanols, can enhance nitric oxide (NO) production in human vascular endothelial cells. This increased NO-synthesis translates to improved endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, as evidenced in healthy human subjects' finger and brachial arteries. After cacao product consumption, flow-mediated dilation (FMD) is improved by a couple of percentage points just as during intense exercise, microcirculation is enhanced and platelet aggregation is attenuated.
Effects Of Food Processing On Cacao Products
Effect of fermentation
When you think of fermented foods, your mind might jump to wine, beer, sauerkraut, or yogurt. But cacao and chocolate are fermented too. After harvesting cacao pods from the Theobroma cacao tree, farmers crack them open to reveal beans encased in a sweet, white pulp. This sugar-rich pulp creates the perfect environment for natural fermentation to begin. Importantly, virtually all commercial cacao products—including those labeled as "raw cacao powder," "raw chocolate," or "whole cacao beans"—undergo fermentation unless explicitly stated otherwise. The term "raw" typically refers only to the absence of roasting or alkalization, not fermentation.
Fermentation initiates complex changes in cacao's polyphenol composition that fundamentally reshape its bioactivity profile. Fresh, unfermented cocoa beans contain both monomeric flavanols (primarily catechins and epicatechins) and polymeric proanthocyanidins (chains of flavanol units). Rather than simply converting one form to another, fermentation creates a cascade of biochemical reactions: during this process, epicatechins and other soluble polyphenols decline by 10–20% due to oxidation and "cocoa sweating" (moisture loss). Simultaneously, anthocyanins—undergo hydrolysis into anthocyanidins and polymerize with catechins to form complex tannins before eventually disappearing.
Particular is the substantial reduction in procyanidin levels, which can decrease three- to five-fold, inversely proportional to fermentation intensity. Fermentation also leads to the formation of biogenic amines (BAs)—nitrogen-containing organic compounds formed through the decarboxylation of amino acids, where an amino acid loses its carboxyl group (COOH) to become an amine (NH₂). These bioactive compounds can influence physiological functions such as blood pressure, mood, and digestion.
Common BAs in cacao include histamine, tyramine, tryptamine, spermidine, and putrescine, with their chemical structure determined by precursor amino acids like tryptophan, tyrosine, or histidine. BA levels in cocoa products vary widely, from trace amounts to moderate concentrations, depending on processing methods. Histamine and tyramine are typically the most prevalent, while spermidine and putrescine appear frequently but in smaller quantities. Interestingly, less processed organic cocoa tends to have lower BA levels, whereas highly processed products show increased amounts, reflecting the influence of processing on their formation.
These compounds contribute various physiological effects: histamine aids digestion and immunity, tyramine supports mood and energy, tryptamine enhances cognitive function, spermidine promotes cellular health and longevity, and putrescine supports tissue repair. Without this fermentation step, cacao and chocolate would remain extraordinarily bitter and astringent, lacking the complex flavor profile consumers expect. The process represents a balancing act where enzymes break down polyphenols, proteins, and sugars, leading to the formation of aroma precursors, improved taste, and color changes—while simultaneously reducing the total phenol content by approximately 50% due to enzymatic hydrolysis and oxidation.
Effects of Roasting on Cacao and Chocolate
Recent research indicates that roasting, a form of heat processing, serves as an additional mechanism for biogenic amine (BA) formation. This process significantly alters the bioactive composition of cacao and chocolate, impacting their antioxidant properties and potential health benefits. Cacao roasting for chocolate can lead to the formation of bioactive amines like 2-phenylethylamine, spermine, and tryptamine through lipid oxidation. These may offer systemic health benefits such as antioxidant protection, anti-aging effects via autophagy, and neuroprotection.
The epicatechin-to-catechin ratio shifts during roasting, while epicatechin decreases during processing, and catechin becomes relatively more abundant. Some research suggests these closely related compounds may have different binding affinities for cellular receptors and distinct metabolic fates, potentially activating different downstream signaling pathways. Epicatechin is better absorbed and more extensively studied, especially in vascular function, nitric oxide production, and flow-mediated dilation. Based solely on this ratio fact, raw cacao would be more effective at reaching active concentrations in plasma and showing vascular effects in vivo, even at relatively low doses.
Unroasted cacao and chocolate, rich in soluble phenolics and alkaloids such as theobromine and caffeine, exhibit higher antioxidant activity, which can directly influence the bloodstream. These smaller, more soluble compounds, pass through the small intestine into circulation, enhancing systemic antioxidant capacity and potentially reducing cardiometabolic risk. Studies (9) consistently show that raw chocolate outperforms roasted chocolate in antioxidant potential, as measured by ORAC and ABTS assays, highlighting its superior retention of bioactive compounds.
Roasting, however, reduces soluble phenolics and alkaloids through oxidation and complexation. The total phenolic content declines from 450.77 to 398.47 mg/100g due to Maillard reactions and epimerization (Onelli et al., 2024). Despite this decrease, the antioxidant activity measured by DPPH and BCAL remains comparable between raw and roasted chocolate, likely due to the compensatory effects of Maillard-derived antioxidants. Additionally, roasting transforms soluble to insoluble-bound compounds, such as theobromine and theophylline, which would now resist digestion in the upper gastrointestinal tract and reach the colon, where they contribute to microbial fermentation. It is thus possible that raw cacao would contain more direct antioxidant activity in the bloodstream and that roasted cacao and chocolate have more indirect but equally potent systemic effects through the microbiome.
One of the most notable transformations during roasting is the formation of melanoidins—high molecular weight (30–70 kDa), water-soluble polymers generated through the Maillard reaction during fermentation, roasting, and grinding. These compounds, largely absent in raw cacao due to the lack of heat exposure, play a significant role in shaping chocolate’s characteristic flavor, aroma, and deep brown color. Roasted cacao products, including chocolate, contain approximately 12.5g of melanoidins per 100g—twice the amount found in filtered coffee (Sherif Shaheen, 2021), whereas raw cacao contains negligible amounts.
Beyond their sensory attributes, melanoidins offer substantial health benefits. As prebiotics, they promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, inhibit pathogenic microbes, and persist undigested until they reach the colon. There, gut microbiota ferments melanoidins into short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as butyrate, and phenolic metabolites like 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, which can be absorbed and contribute to systemic antioxidant effects. Roasting also enhances the bioavailability of residual polyphenols, including epicatechin and catechin, by facilitating their binding to melanoidins and modulating their release during digestion.
These polymers exhibit strong antioxidant properties, neutralizing free radicals, scavenging electrophiles, and chelating metals, with additional support from polyphenols integrated into their structure. Other benefits include antimicrobial and anti-adhesive effects, antihypertensive potential, reduced heavy metal absorption, and inhibition of glycation, which mitigates the formation of harmful advanced glycation end-products (AGEs).
In conclusion, while raw cacao maximizes soluble bioactives for direct systemic antioxidant benefits, roasting cultivates a distinct profile rich in melanoidins, which bolster gut health and provide indirect antioxidant support. This dual functionality highlights melanoidins as an essential, yet often overlooked, contributor to the nutritional and sensory qualities of roasted cacao.
Once again Forastero is superior for producing melanoidin-rich, antioxidant cocoa under roasting due to its higher polyphenol content.
Effects of alkalized and non-alkalized Cacao
When evaluating cacao for its potential health benefits, the impact of alkalization—commonly known as the Dutch process—warrants consideration. Alkalization involves treating cacao with alkaline solutions, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium carbonate, under controlled heat and pressure. This process darkens the powder, improves solubility, and reduces bitterness, making it appealing for culinary use. However, it significantly decreases polyphenol content with studies indicating reductions ranging from 27% in lightly alkalised cacao to over 60% in heavily processed versions.
Palma-Morales et al. (2024) used advanced metabolomics to compare alkalized and non-alkalized cocoa powders. Alkalization, a process that improves solubility and darkens color, was found to significantly reduce beneficial compounds like polyphenols and amino acids. However, alkalization also generates Maillard reaction products, including melanoidins, which possess antioxidant activity and may partially compensate for the loss of polyphenols. Furthermore, the increased solubility of alkalized cocoa could potentially enhance the absorption of the remaining polyphenols.
Therefore, while alkalization alters the chemical profile of cocoa, it's currently unclear whether the reduction in some compounds is entirely detrimental to health benefits. More research is needed to determine the net impact of alkalization on polyphenol bioavailability and the overall health effects of consuming alkalized versus non-alkalized cocoa. Consumers seeking to understand the processing of their cocoa products should look for terms like "Dutch-processed" or “natural” and "non-alkalized" on the packaging.
Cacao powder as a sports supplement. Too much of a good thing?
A 2022 study examined whether high-flavanol cacao powder could enhance endurance performance in cross-country runners. Male athletes (VO₂max ≥ 55 mL/kg/min) consumed 5 grams of cacao powder (425 mg flavanols) daily for 10 weeks alongside their usual polarized training. Performance markers, including maximal aerobic speed (MAS), VO₂max, ventilatory thresholds, and oxidative stress indicators, were tracked, with a placebo group serving as a control. A parallel mouse study explored potential mechanisms.
Cacao consumption lowered lipid peroxidation (TBARS) and stabilized IL-6 levels, suggesting reduced oxidative stress and inflammation. However, only the control group improved in MAS, and the cacao group exhibited suppressed mitochondrial biogenesis, linked to supposed decreased Nrf2 expression which they observed in the mouse arm of their study. Researchers speculated that cacao’s antioxidants blunted oxidative stress too effectively, dampening the adaptive stress response critical for endurance gains.
These findings are difficult to reconcile with current evidence. Whole-food polyphenols typically support, rather than hinder, training adaptations due to their complex interactions within the food matrix. Moreover, polyphenols are known to be poorly bioavailable, and their primary mechanism of action in humans is thought to be Nrf2 upregulation, enhancing antioxidant defenses and mitochondrial function rather than acting as direct antioxidants. The fact that cacao was consumed with skimmed milk—a known inhibitor of polyphenol absorption—further complicates the interpretation. Given these issues, replication is necessary—but at this stage, this looks more like a fluke than a meaningful discovery.
García-Merino, J. A., de Lucas, B., Herrera-Rocha, K., Moreno-Pérez, D., Montalvo-Lominchar, M. G., Fernández-Romero, A., ... & Larrosa, M. (2022). Flavanol-rich cocoa supplementation inhibits mitochondrial biogenesis triggered by exercise. Antioxidants, 11(8), 1522.
Chocolate
Is Chocolate an Ultra-Processed Food (UPF)?
No. Chocolate production involves traditional physical and biotechnological processes (fermentation, roasting, grinding) without chemical synthesis or artificial additives. Dark chocolate, in particular, uses minimal ingredients (cocoa liquor, cocoa butter, sugar) and retains bioactive compounds like polyphenols and flavanols, linked to cardiovascular health, cognitive function, and antioxidant activity. Unlike UPFs—which rely on industrial additives, hyper-palatability, and nutrient degradation—chocolate’s processing enhances natural flavors and preserves nutrients. Moderate consumption of high-cocoa chocolate (70%+) aligns with healthy diets, offering benefits without UPF-associated risks. Thus, classifying chocolate as UPF overlooks its simplicity, nutrient density, and role in wellness when consumed mindfully.
Ditchfield, C., Kushida, M. M., Mazalli, M. R., & Sobral, P. J. A. (2023). Can chocolate be classified as an ultra-processed food? A short review on processing and health aspects to help answer this question. Foods, 12(16), 3070.
Is Chocolate an unhealthy food?
Chocolate does have the lowest possible NUTRI-SCORE rating, primarily due to its very high caloric density and high saturated fat content. Additionally, the added sugar in most commercial chocolate products is another possible concern, at least by definition, this could cause rapid blood sugar spikes and potentially contribute to insulin resistance with regular consumption over time. First, let’s address these issues.
Chocolate's caloric density—between 515-580 kcal per 100g—can contribute to weight gain when consumed in large amounts. This energy value typically comes in convenient 100-gram bars. What makes chocolate particularly appealing is how it triggers the brain's reward system, specifically stimulating dopamine release, which reinforces the desire to eat more. The smooth, melt-in-the-mouth texture further encourages passive overeating, as foods that dissolve easily tend to be consumed in greater quantities. However, chocolate isn't uniquely calorie-dense. Many other foods share similar energy values: nuts like almonds, walnuts, and macadamias provide healthy fats and protein; and dried fruits such as dates and raisins are within the same range. Since all these foods can potentially lead to overconsumption, it would be unfair to label chocolate as unhealthy based solely on its caloric content or palatability.
Next, let’s cover the fat content and its influence on blood sugar.
Cocoa beans, the base of chocolate, are naturally rich in fat, making up as much as 58% of their weight. This fat, known as cocoa butter, is mostly made up of monounsaturated oleic acid (33-38%), the same heart-friendly fat found in olive oil. It also contains a high amount of stearic acid (33-38%), a saturated fat that the body processes differently from other saturated fats like palmitic or myristic acid. Unlike those, stearic acid doesn’t raise LDL (“bad” cholesterol) and is partly converted into oleic acid. A smaller portion of cocoa butter is palmitic acid (24-27%), which is a saturated fat. Researchers consider chocolate’s overall fat composition to be non-arteriogenic, meaning it does not contribute to artery-clogging effects.
One benefit of cocoa butter is that it digests slowly, unlike fats such as those in coconut oil. This slower digestion can help prolong satiety and also slow the absorption of sugar, preventing rapid spikes in blood glucose levels. Even though chocolate contains added sugar, dark chocolate with its 11g of fiber per 100g is a high-fiber food. This fiber is made from cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin substance, one whole chocolate tablet would provide roughly 35-45% of the daily fiber needs.
So, is dark chocolate now a healthy food?
Although some people might hold doubts (as seen in this 2018 Vox article), independent common sense nutrient profiling ranks cacao among the top nutrient-dense foods (Drewnowski, 2024). Chocolate ranks slightly beneath cacao but still in the higher range among all possible foods. Both were recognized for their high flavonoid content, particularly flavan-3-ols, which are linked to antioxidant and cardiometabolic benefits. Cocoa and chocolate also scored high in vitamin E, zinc, copper, and selenium, contributing to their antioxidant profile.
Studies show that regular consumption of high-flavanol dark chocolate (≥70% cocoa) can improve endothelial function by boosting nitric oxide production, a molecule critical for relaxing blood vessels and enhancing blood flow. This mechanism not only lowers blood pressure but also reduces arterial stiffness, a key contributor to atherosclerosis and heart disease.
Beyond vascular health, cocoa flavonoids exhibit potent anti-platelet activity, disrupting the hyperactivation of blood platelets that drive clot formation. By inhibiting platelet aggregation pathways—such as blocking the exposure of GPIIb/IIIa receptors and suppressing oxidative stress—dark chocolate helps prevent dangerous thrombus formation. Clinical trials highlight its ability to synergize with antiplatelet medications like clopidogrel, amplifying their efficacy in patients with coronary artery disease. Additionally, cocoa’s antioxidants reduce inflammation by lowering pro-inflammatory markers (e.g., IL-6, TNF-α) and protecting LDL cholesterol from oxidation, a critical step in plaque buildup.
In the literature (22), consuming chocolate decreases fasting insulin and glucose concentrations and increases glucose and insulin sensitivity in the long term. Additionally, multiple studies have observed that consuming chocolate can reduce LDL cholesterol levels and increase HDL cholesterol, while also appearing to decrease the oxidation of LDL. This should be no surprise because insulin-mediated increases in NO availability due to polyphenols significantly improve insulin-mediated glucose uptake in healthy persons.
The Chocolate Paradox
When I started investigating cacao, something immediately struck me as paradoxical for which I didn’t immediately have an answer. Cacao processing—from fermentation to roasting to alkalization—strips away 50-60% of the total polyphenols at each step. By the time manufacturers add fat and sugar to create chocolate, more than 90% of the original polyphenols have vanished. This raises a question: how can studies continue to observe measurable health benefits from a food that has lost so much of its bioactive content?
Chocolate as a delivery system for polyphenols
The answer begins with understanding cacao's extraordinary starting point. Raw cacao beans contain one of the highest concentrations of polyphenols found in any food—studies show that 12-18% of cacao's dry weight consists of polyphenolic compounds. This far exceeds familiar sources like blueberries (0.5%) or red wine (0.2-0.3%). In terms of polyphenol density, cacao resembles potent spices such as cloves (15% polyphenols). However, while spices are typically consumed in minuscule quantities, cacao products and dark chocolate are enjoyed in substantially larger amounts, delivering a meaningful dose even after processing losses.
Counterintuitively, the processing that reduces total polyphenol content may enhance the bioavailability of those that remain. Polyphenols are notoriously difficult to absorb—many are large, complex molecules that struggle to cross the intestinal wall or are metabolized too quickly in the liver if they do make it across. Cacao processing—particularly fermentation and roasting—functions as a form of pre-metabolism, breaking down complex structures into smaller, more bioavailable compounds. These heat-induced chemical reactions mimic what our gut microbiota would do, essentially pre-digesting the polyphenols.
Procyanidins are large molecules with complex structures, consisting of chains of flavanol units (like catechin and epicatechin) linked together. The larger the procyanidin (dimers, trimers, and especially oligomers and polymers), the more difficult it is for them to pass through intestinal cell membranes. If we rank all known polyphenols by bioaccessibility and bioavailability we would get: Isoflavones > phenolic acids > flavanols > flavanones > flavonols > anthocyanins > proanthocyanidins. So, procyanidins have the most limited bioavailability, their impact is largely exerted through the action of gut microbiota, which converts them into absorbable and bioactive metabolites.
While raw cacao contains higher total polyphenol content, many of these compounds are bound to proteins or fiber, potentially limiting absorption. The processing of cacao into chocolate may break some of these bonds, potentially enhancing the bioavailability of certain polyphenols despite reducing their total content. Additionally, the fat content in chocolate may improve the absorption of fat-soluble polyphenolic compounds. It can affect how much is released and when, which influences how much reaches the microbiota, and ultimately what metabolites get into circulation.
Dr. Roger Corder, emeritus professor of experimental therapeutics at Queen Mary University of London has suggested based on his research that the main cardioprotective molecules in wine are the procyanidins and not things like resveratrol. This procyanidin connection explains why both cacao products and certain red wines show similar cardiovascular benefits in research studies. Endothelial function improvement. Nitric oxide production enhancement. Anti-inflammatory effects. Antioxidant protection of LDL cholesterol. Modest blood pressure reduction
Both wine (particularly young, tannic red wines from regions known for high procyanidin content like Madiran in Southwest France) and cacao offer unique delivery systems for procyanidins. While these beneficial compounds typically have low absorption rates in most foods, wine, and chocolate provide specialized vehicles that enhance their bioavailability. In wine, the alcohol content appears to facilitate absorption across intestinal membranes, increasing the compounds' bioactivity. Similarly and even more so, in chocolate, the combination of fat, sugar, and emulsifiers creates an optimal delivery matrix that improves procyanidin small intestine absorption and utilization. Emulsifiers for example stabilize the chocolate matrix, delaying gastric emptying to prolong flavanol exposure for absorption and improve polyphenol solubility via micelle formation, aiding small intestine absorption.
Chocolate is an antioxidant powerhouse
Dark chocolate stands out as an exceptional source of antioxidants. In the United States, chocolate ranks as the third-highest source of antioxidants in the American diet—after coffee and tea—contributing approximately 100–107 mg of phenolic antioxidants daily (17). This contribution would be substantially higher if Americans shunned milk chocolate and instead favored dark chocolate varieties as commonly as Europeans do, where it is often consumed as a premium product.
Consuming 100 g of dark chocolate significantly increased plasma antioxidant levels (+18.4%) and (-)-epicatechin absorption within 1 hour. Effects returned to baseline after 4 hours (18).
Switzerland, ranking fifth globally in life expectancy, holds the world record for chocolate consumption with the average Swiss citizen enjoying 32 grams of predominantly dark chocolate daily. Other nations in the top five for longevity include Japan, where residents consume about 5 grams of chocolate daily, and Italy, with approximately 10 grams per person.
Hong Kong—the global leader in life expectancy for both males and females—shows remarkable chocolate consumption relative to its Asian neighbors. By 2017, according to Euromonitor data, Hong Kong's annual per capita chocolate consumption reached 1.5 kg (equivalent to 4 grams daily), positioning it as the second-highest consumer in the Asia-Pacific region, behind only Australia, which ranks second worldwide for life expectancy while consuming close to 16 grams of chocolate every day.
✅ People in long-living countries thus tend to consume a median intake of 10 grams of chocolate a day, based on annual per capita chocolate consumption. This translates to 50-60 added kcals per day (~2.75% of a 2,000-calorie diet).
A randomized controlled trial published in JAMA (21) found that consuming a low habitual intake of 6.3g/day of dark chocolate lowered systolic BP by 2.9 mmHg and diastolic BP via nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation. The study’s low-dose model (30 kcal/day) avoids weight gain, suggesting a safe threshold for health benefits. Modest BP reductions (3 mmHg systolic) are associated with an estimated 8% lower stroke risk and 5% reduced coronary mortality at a population level. The BP reduction correlated with increased S-nitroso glutathione, a nitric oxide metabolite, suggesting enhanced endothelial function and vasodilation. No changes in oxidative stress markers (e.g., 8-isoprostane) were observed.
Commercial dark chocolate is one of those rare processed foods that are inherently healthy by sheer accident. Attempts to make it “healthier” by choosing sugar-free, emulsifier-free, raw, natural, or non-Dutched versions don’t seem to offer any real benefits—so long as you stick to dark chocolate with let’s say ~85-100% cacao solids.
Chocolate is a mineral and trace mineral supplement
A study (23) using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) by the French Agency for Food, Environmental, and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) identifies cacao and chocolate as the richest dietary sources of several trace minerals. Cocoa beans absorb minerals from volcanic or mineral-rich soils as they grow, thriving in the tropical regions near the equator, typically within 20° latitude north and south. Because cacao is always cultivated in warm, humid climates with nutrient-dense soil, its beans naturally accumulate high concentrations of trace elements. Major cacao-producing regions include West Africa (Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria), South America (Ecuador, Brazil, Peru), and Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia).
Dark chocolate, in particular, is the highest-known food source of chromium, cobalt, manganese, and nickel, while ranking second for copper and fourth for zinc. These high mineral levels are mostly found in chocolate rather than raw cacao beans. This is because chocolate processing concentrates these minerals, with dark chocolate (70–100% cocoa solids) retaining more minerals than raw beans.
The Dual-Delivery Metabolite Activation of Chocolate
Chocolate, especially dark chocolate with high cocoa content, is a meaningful source of polyphenols—most notably flavan-3-ols like epicatechin and procyanidins. These compounds are precursors to a group of microbial metabolites called phenyl-γ-valerolactones (PVLs), such as DHPV and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid (DHPP). These metabolites have been shown to support vascular health, reduce inflammation, and offer neuroprotective effects—even at low concentrations found in human plasma. A recent review by Williamson and Clifford (Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2024) highlights these compounds as among the few dietary polyphenol metabolites consistently found in circulation at physiologically active levels.
What makes chocolate unique compared to raw cacao powder or grape seed extract is its dual-delivery potential. Its fat-rich matrix (due to cocoa butter) promotes the absorption of monomeric flavanols like epicatechin in the small intestine. This leads to early-phase metabolites appearing in the blood, such as glucuronidated and sulfated epicatechin conjugates, which may contribute to rapid antioxidant effects and vascular tone improvements. At the same time, the fat and emulsified texture slow digestion, allowing more polymeric flavanols—which are poorly absorbed early—to reach the colon. There, gut microbes break them down into valerolactones and other bioactive metabolites. This combination of early absorption and delayed fermentation gives dark chocolate a hybrid pharmacokinetic profile not matched by raw cacao or grape seed alone.
By contrast, grape seed extract is absorbed minimally in the upper gut and delivers most of its content directly to the colon, where it becomes a rich substrate for microbial fermentation to valerolactones. Cacao powder behaves similarly but retains more monomeric flavanols due to limited processing. However, both lack the structured fat matrix of chocolate and as a result, they don’t produce early-phase systemic effects to the same extent.
A standout microbial metabolite in this pathway is (4R)-5-(4′-Hydroxyphenyl)-γ-valerolactone, which has shown neuroprotective activity at concentrations as low as 10 nanomolar in cell models. In free-living individuals, plasma levels have been measured around 3 nanomolars, which is slightly lower than those shown to produce effects in vitro. However, it's important to consider that plasma measurements may underestimate local concentrations in tissues like the brain or blood vessels, where these compounds might accumulate. Moreover, these levels rise with consistent intake of flavanol-rich foods over time.
The cardiovascular benefits of dark chocolate are well supported. Clinical studies (12) have shown reductions in blood pressure with a regular intake of high-cocoa chocolate. One study found no effect after one week, but a significant reduction in systolic pressure after two weeks—highlighting the importance of sustained consumption for vascular effects. These effects likely involve a mix of direct antioxidant action, improved nitric oxide availability, and longer-term shifts in endothelial function.
In summary, dark chocolate offers a unique combination: it delivers fast-acting conjugated flavanol metabolites through upper-gut absorption and also provides a substrate for slower microbial production of valerolactones in the colon. This makes it a valuable addition alongside grape seed and cacao, especially when aiming for broad and sustained antioxidant and vascular support through polyphenol metabolism.
Emerging research (10) has added a compelling new dimension to how we understand cacao’s health effects. We’ve described chocolate as offering a “dual-delivery” mechanism for polyphenols—with rapid effects through small intestine absorption of monomeric flavanols (which might cause the antioxidant response observed in studies) and delayed effects via microbial fermentation of procyanidins into valerolactones in the colon. However, recent insights into the role of PON1 and PON3 enzymes suggest there is a third, host-mediated phase that further activates and refines cacao-derived metabolites once they are in circulation.
Key among these metabolites is called 5-(3′,4′-dihydroxyphenyl)-γ-valerolactone, a gut-derived product of cacao flavanols. This compound, once in the bloodstream, can be hydrolyzed by our paraoxonase enzymes (PON1 and PON3)—enzymes typically bound to HDL cholesterol particles in the blood. Rather than being methylated and rapidly excreted, as occurs with catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), PON-mediated hydrolysis opens the lactone ring of valerolactones, forming new open-chain phenolic acids with sustained vascular and neurological activity. These hydrolyzed products are more than just breakdown products—they actively support endothelial function, reduce oxidative stress, and may cross the blood-brain barrier to exert neuroprotective effects.
While PON enzymes function after both cacao and chocolate consumption, this third phase completes a tri-layered model of chocolate’s functional pharmacology: first, early-phase conjugates formed in the small intestine; second, delayed-phase microbial valerolactones produced in the colon; and third, host-enzyme–refined hydrolysates circulating systemically and contributing to vascular tone, metabolic regulation, and brain health. The presence of PON1 and PON3 on HDL particles ties these benefits to lipid metabolism and inflammation resolution, helping explain chocolate’s links to lowered blood pressure, reduced LDL oxidation, and enhanced insulin sensitivity. Importantly, this model also highlights why chronic intake and microbiome health matter. Valerolactone production depends on gut microbial activity, while PON1 expression and function vary by genotype and lifestyle.
In sum, dark chocolate’s health potential lies not only in its dense polyphenol content or unique fat-based delivery matrix, but in its ability to initiate a cascade of biotransformations that unfold across digestive, microbial, and systemic compartments. The discovery of this host-driven enzymatic layer offers a richer, more complete explanation for chocolate’s effects on the cardiovascular system, brain, and beyond.
Chocolate as a sports performance supplement
Polyphenols, a diverse group of dietary phytochemicals found in plant-based foods, are increasingly recognized for their possible role in supporting athletic performance or even as a pre-workout or pre-match food or supplement. Their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, along with their ability to modulate gut microbiota and improve vascular function, position them as promising tools in sports nutrition. Evidence shows polyphenol supplementation from sources like blackcurrants, grapes, and green tea enhances endurance capacity, particularly when consumed over extended periods. A systematic review by Cao et al. (2024) found improved time to exhaustion, greater distances covered, and better fat oxidation with chronic intake. However, benefits were inconsistent when taken acutely.
Cocoa-derived flavanols (CFs), a specific subclass of polyphenols, share many of these traits. Multiple reviews converge on the conclusion that CFs reduce exercise-induced oxidative stress (Corr et al., 2021; Decroix et al., 2018), though their impact on inflammation and muscle recovery is limited and inconsistent. Corr et al. (2021) note reduced oxidative markers like F2-isoprostanes following both acute and sub-chronic intake (~200 mg/day), with stronger effects when consumed for at least 7–14 days. Performance benefits seem modest but present, particularly in endurance tests where CF intake delayed fatigue, likely due to oxidative stress modulation. Time trials showed less consistent results.
The study by Decroix et al. (2018) expands this by showing that chronic CF intake improves vascular and mitochondrial function, particularly in untrained populations, while acute intake may reduce blood pressure. Again, improvements were more evident with ongoing use. The importance of chronic intake is echoed in Crepaldi et al. (2024), who highlight sustained polyphenol intake as crucial for gut microbiota modulation and consistent performance effects.
Real-world studies on dark chocolate (DC), a rich CF source, reinforce these findings. A 2025 pilot study by Benedetti et al. on elite U16 soccer players found that 25g of 85% DC daily improved high-intensity performance metrics and reduced muscle soreness. A 2024 RCT by Cavarretta et al. confirmed reduced oxidative stress and muscle damage markers following 30 days of 40g DC in elite footballers, although the lack of a placebo and short duration limits generalisability. Still, blinding, adherence verification, and in vitro validation support its reliability.
More robust vascular and performance changes were reported by Vordos et al. (2024), where 50g of 70% DC consumed daily for two weeks improved arterial stiffness, blood pressure, VO₂max, and anaerobic threshold in endurance-trained men. Similarly, Patel et al. (2015) found that 40g of DC over 14 days enhanced cycling efficiency, increased lactate threshold by 21%, and improved short-term performance, suggesting DC may benefit both sustained and high-intensity efforts.
In summary, both general and cocoa-specific polyphenol studies converge on the idea that chronic intake is essential for meaningful ergogenic effects. Benefits accrue over time, likely through improved vascular function, reduced oxidative stress, and enhanced fat metabolism. Acute supplementation—while not useless—yields more modest outcomes and may be most effective when timed with repeated bouts of exercise, particularly under oxidative strain. For practical use, chronic intake of 25–50g of high-flavanol dark chocolate (≥70%) daily for 1–4 weeks appears to enhance aerobic efficiency and recovery. Acute intake some 2 hours before exercise may help in high oxidative stress scenarios but is unlikely to replicate the same effects seen with chronic intake. A strategy of combining chronic and acute use might be the most suitable.
A review article (Bowtell & Kelly, 2019) summarises that a dose of about 300 mg of polyphenols taken 1–2 hours before exercise may enhance performance, particularly in endurance and repeated sprint exercise. The mechanisms involved are primarily vascular—increased nitric oxide (NO) availability improves muscle perfusion, potentially enhancing oxygen delivery and waste removal.
✅ Take 1.5 tbsp cacao powder or 60-70g dark chocolate, preferably a combination of both 90-120 minutes before exercise
Dosing Considerations For Health
According to measurements by Consumerlabs on commercial cacao products in the US, 1.5 tbsp of high-flavanol cocoa (7.5g, ~15 kcal) or 13.5g (~75 kcal) of unsweetened (100%) dark chocolate would reap 200mg flavanols.
An EFSA-approved health claim states that 200 mg of cocoa flavanols contribute specifically to normal blood vessel elasticity, supporting cardiovascular health. 13.5 grams is congruent with the median 10 grams we observed in long-lived countries. Yet, studies (19) have observed beneficial effects of flavanol-rich cocoa consumption already at doses ranging from 45.3 mg/d to 1078 mg/d, particularly on cardiovascular health. This would equate to a minimal dose of 3.6 grams of 100% dark chocolate.
Indeed, a randomized controlled trial (20) published in Molecules found that even a small daily dose of high-quality dark chocolate—just 2 grams—can significantly improve health in individuals at high risk of metabolic dysfunction. Conducted over six months on obese adults, the study showed: that DNA damage in oral cells dropped from 14% to under 2%, LDL cholesterol decreased by 23%, triglycerides fell by 33%, and waist circumference shrank by 8.4 cm. The chocolate used in the study was commercial Mexican dark chocolate with a polyphenol content nearly 1.7 times higher than the average dark chocolate bar. To achieve the same benefits as standard dark chocolate, at least around 3.7 grams per day would be needed which is again congruent with the minimal dose we reported.
Ideally, you would also look at the broader picture of how you want to approach all dietary polyphenols, for this see BIOS Needs Polyphenols.
Cacao's potential adverse effect on skin health
Cocoa components have shown promise in supporting skin health, particularly in conditions like skin cancer, psoriasis, acne, and wound healing. Beyond aiding in treatment, cocoa also exhibits potential for prevention (3). Its antioxidants help counteract oxidative stress, a major factor in dermal breakdown and premature aging.
However, for some individuals, multiple studies (6), including randomized controlled trials (7), suggest that cacao products—whether in the form of powder, polyphenols, or chocolate—can trigger or exacerbate acne lesions. This effect is particularly pronounced in young men, who naturally have higher sebum production and androgen activity (2). Cacao appears to increase acne risk by accelerating skin cell turnover, though the precise mechanisms remain under investigation. Current evidence points to several possible pathways:
Flavonoids in cacao, such as epicatechin, may elevate interleukin-1 beta levels, a pro-inflammatory molecule that speeds up skin cell turnover and cornification. This results in an accumulation of dead skin cells that can clog pores, creating an environment conducive to acne.
Cocoa polyphenols may also stimulate sebaceous glands to produce excess sebum, leading to thicker, stickier oil that traps bacteria and dead cells within follicles. Additionally, certain compounds in cocoa may enhance androgen receptor activity, particularly for dihydrotestosterone, further increasing oil production and follicular hyperkeratinization.
Age plays a key role in this relationship. Those with naturally higher sebum production and androgen activity tend to be more sensitive to dietary triggers like chocolate, whereas older individuals with reduced sebaceous gland activity generally exhibit milder responses.
If your skin is sensitive to cacao consumption, make sure to lower your intake to a dose that doesn’t trigger any negative effects. And don’t take cacao extracts with high amounts of polyphenols or other very high polyphenol cacao products to prevent outbreaks or permanent scarring.
Myoinositol (5) has been shown to improve hormonal and metabolic parameters in acne patients and is considered a safe and effective supplement. Studies on its use for sleep improvements suggest that a daily dosage of 1 to 3 grams, dissolved in the mouth, may be beneficial.
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🍫 Dark-Chocolate & Cacao Playbook
Updated by ChatGPT o3, 26 May 2025
🩺 Daily Health-Maintenance Dose
☕ Option A – Cacao Powder🥄 1 rounded tablespoon (≈ 7 g) natural, non-alkalised cacao➡️ Stir into hot water, coffee, or smoothies
🍫 Option B – Chocolate Bar🍬 10–15 g of 85–100 % dark chocolate (≈ 2 squares)📈 Delivers ~200 mg flavan-3-ols → the EFSA-approved dose for maintaining healthy blood vessels
💡 Pro tip:🧈 Take with a little dietary fat (e.g. nuts, yoghurt, coconut milk) to improve absorption🚫 Avoid cow’s milk — it binds polyphenols and blocks uptake
⚽ Performance Booster (Endurance, Ball Sports)
🕒 90–120 min before training or match🥄 1½ tbsp cacao powderOR🍫 60–70 g of 85 % dark chocolate💧 Wash down with 300 ml water or black coffee
🏃♂️ Benefits from trials:✅ Improved VO₂ max✅ Later lactate threshold✅ Reduced perceived effort
📆 Must be used daily for at least 7 days for full effect💥 One-time use = mild or placebo-tier benefits
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